Preeminent Medical Missionary in the 20th Century: Oliver R. Avison

No abstract available.

Venezuela's melting pot: 1500-1800 / O melting pot venezuelano: 1500-1800 / El melting pot venezolano 1500-1800

Not much is known about the demography of the native population of Venezuela in Colonial times. Until mid-17th century, some factual information may be gained from the narratives of the first conquistadores, missionaries and colonists, as well as of authors writing in later times of the Colony, but with access to original sources. After mid-17th century, some quantitative information of demographic relevance was collected by the Jesuit, Capuchin and Franciscan missionaries and, in the last decades of the 18th century, by the colonial administration and the religious authorities. The native population declined, from between 200,000 and 500,000 inhabitants at contact (guesstimates of modern authors) to perhaps 120,000 in 1800, according to Humboldt's estimate. It is possible that the initial decline became steeper after the first smallpox pandemic of the 1580s and continued, at a slower pace, until the Independence. As in other regions of South America, marriage was early and almost universal, and the high ratio of births to deaths seems to indicate a high potential for growth, interrupted by frequent mortality crisis. A competing cause of the decline of the natives was the process of mestizaje that intensified with the increase of the population of European and African origin.

Pouco se sabe sobre a demografia da população nativa da Venezuela dos tempos coloniais. Até meados do século XVII, algumas informações factuais podem ser obtidas por meio das narrativas dos primeiros conquistadores, missionários e colonizadores, assim como de autores 221 Bacci, M.L. Venezuela's melting pot: 1500-1800 R. bras. Est. Pop., Belo Horizonte, v.34, n.2, p.199-221, maio/ago. 2017 do final do período colonial com acesso a fontes de documentos originais. Até meados do século XVII, alguma informação quantitativa foi coletada pelos missionários jesuítas, capuchinos e franciscanos e, na última década do século XVII, pela administração colonial e pelas autoridades religiosas. A população nativa, que era de 200.000 a 500.000 habitantes (estimativas de autores modernos), diminuiu para talvez 120.000 em 1800, de acordo com a estimativa de Hambold. É possível que o declínio inicial tenha se tornado mais acentuado após a primeira pandemia de varíola de 1580 e tenha continuado, em um ritmo mais lento, até a Independência. Como em outras regiões da América Latina, os casamentos eram precoces e quase universais, e a elevada taxa de nascimentos sobre mortes parece indicar um alto potencial de crescimento, interrompido pelas frequentes crises de mortalidade. Uma causa competitiva para o declínio da população nativa foi o processo de mestiçagem intensificado com o aumento da população de origem europeia e africana.

Nuestro conocimiento sobre la demografia de la población autoctóna de Venezuela durante la Colonia es limitado. Hasta la mitad del siglo XVII, las narraciones de los primeros conquistadores, de los misioneros y de los funcionarios ofrecen algunas escasa información y lo mismo puede decirse de algunos autores que escribieron en tiempos posteriores con acceso a fuentes originales. Después de la mitad del siglo XVII, la información de tipo cuantitativo se debe a los misioneros capuchinos, jesuitas y franciscanos, y, en las últimas décadas del siglo XVIII, a la administración de la Colonia y a la Iglesia. Algunos autores contemporáneos estiman la población autóctona al contacto entre 200.000 y 500.000 habitantes, que se redujo a 120.000 en 1800, según las evaluaciones de Humboldt. Es posibe que el declive inicial se haya accelerado por causa de la primera pandemia de viruela en la década de 1580, y que haya continuado a un ritmo más lento hasta la independencia. Como en otras poblaciones de América del Sur, los nativos de Venezuela se casaban muy temprano, y muy pocos permanecían solteros, además de que la razón muy alta entre nacimientos y defunciones indica un potencial de crecimiento demográfico muy elevado, interrumpido por frecuentes crisis de mortalidad. Una concausa del declive demográfico de la población autóctona fue seguramente el proceso de mestizaje, muy acelerado como consecuencia del crecimiento de las poblaciones de origen europeo y africano.

Severance Hospital: Bringing Modern Medicine to Korea

No abstract available.

Las estadísticas de salud no nacen de un repollo: jesuitas, aritméticas políticas, estigmergias y oligópticos / Health statistics aren't born in a cabbage patch: jesuits, political arithmetic, stigmergy and oligopticons

A partir de un análisis del contenido y la red productora de un mapa de 1751, elaborado por la misión circular de los jesuitas en Chiloé (archipiélago ubicado en la costa austral chilena), que contiene cifras de nacimientos, defunciones y habitantes, este artículo discute el rol de las estadísticas de salud, en diferentes registros: históricos, filosóficos, técnicos y sociológicos. De este modo, se busca comprender la génesis de un proceso de producción de cifras y referencias, para debatir de qué están hechas las estadísticas de salud, qué roles cumplen, sus vínculos con la construcción de colectivos y las condiciones de posibilidad de producciones diferentes. Tratamos de ensayar algunas hipótesis que muestran las estadísticas como articulación híbrida de elementos de índole muy diversa: epistemológicos, biopolíticos, históricos y filosóficos, reconociendo en ellos facetas religiosas y demográficas, ontológicas y étnicas, científicas y de gobierno.

By analyzing the content and network of production of a map from 1751, created by the circular mission of the Jesuits in Chiloé (an archipelago located off the southern coast of Chile), that contains birth, death and population data, this article discusses the role that health statistics play historically, philosophically, technically and sociologically. In doing so, the article seeks to comprehend the genesis of a process of production of data and references in order to debate what health statistics are composed of, what ends they are used for, what their connection is to the formation of collectives and the differential conditions of possibility that exist for producing statistics. We attempt to develop hypotheses that demonstrate statistics as a hybrid articulation between diverse elements, epistemological, biopolitical, historical and philosophical in nature, with facets at once religious and demographic, ontological and ethnic, scientific and governmental.

Research on the Hospital Construction and Structure in Daehan Empire and Colonial Modern Period / 의사학

It was the late Chosun Dynasty and Daehan Empire era that Western Medicine has firstly been introduced to Korea, previously operating on a basis of Korean traditional medicine. Western Medicine has been introduced by American missionary and Japanese Imperialism. An introduction of Western Medicine made it feasible to proceed new type medical care including operation, leading to require a new form of medical facilities. In the beginning, new facilities were constructed by Japanese Imperialism. Other hand many of facilities including Severance Hospital were established by missionaries. First of all, Daehan Empire established and managed a modern type of medical facility named "Jejoongwon" in 1885 as a government institution hospital. The Red Cross Hospital built in 1889. Afterwards, Jejoongwon and the Red Cross Hospital were taken over to missionary hospital and Japanese Imperialism, respectively. Japanese Imperialists firstly have protected their nationals residing in Chosun but have proceeded care a few Chosun people to exploit medical treatment as a mean to advertise superiority of the Empire of Japan. The facility that has firstly been established and managed was Jeseang Hospital in Busan in 1877, leading to establish in Wonju, Wonsan, and Mokpo. Afterwards, Japan has organized "Donginhoi" as a civil invasion organization, leading for "Donginhoi" to established "Dongin Hospital" in Pyeongyang, Daegu, and Seoul. Since 1909, governmental leading medical facility named Jahye Hospital was established according to an imperial order, leading to establish 32 hospitals all over the nation. American missionaries have established and managed 28 hospitals started from Severance Hospital built in 1904. However, Chosun doctors started to having educated and opening up their own hospital since 1920, leading for many of medical facilities to be established, but most of them have taken different roles followed by 6.25 War and economic development period. However, some of them are currently under protection as cultural assets, and some of them are now preserved. Buildings have originally been structured of wood as a single story in the beginning, but bricks started to be steadily used, leading to build two story building. Each of clinic department started to be separated since 1920, establishing operation room and treatment room. Now, a change of perception as to buildings that need to be preserved and an attention from government and doctors are required since modern medical facilities keep disappearing.

Establishment and Activity of PoKuNyoKwan / 의사학

PoKuNyoKwan was established in 1887 by Meta Howard, a female doctor who was dispatched from Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, an evangelical branch affiliated with U.S. North Methodist Church. PoKuNyoKwan was equipped with dispensaries, waiting rooms, pharmacies, warehouses, operating rooms, and wards for about 30 patients. It used a traditional Korean house, which was renovated for its medical purpose, in Ewha Haktang. Residing in Chung Dong, the medical institution had taken care of women's mental and physical health for about 25 years, until it was merged with East Gate Lillian Harris Memorial Hospital in 1912, and then its dispensary function was abolished in 1913. Medical missionaries(Meta Howard, Rosetta Sherwood, Mary M. Cutler, Emma Ernsberger, Esther K. Pak, Amanda F. Hillman) and nurse missionaries(Ella Lewis, Margaret J. Edmunds, Alta I. Morrison, Naomi A. Anderson), who were professionally trained in the United States, and their helpers, who were trained by those missionaries, managed PoKuNyoKwan. Nurses who were educated in Nurses' Training School, which was also established by PoKuNyoKwan, helped to run the institution as well. At the beginning, they usually had worked as a team of one medical missionary and three helpers. Since its establishment in 1903, however, the helpers began to enter the Nurses' Training School to become professional nurses, and the helpers eventually faded out because of the proliferation of those nurses. PoKuNyoKwan did not only offer medical services but also executed educational and evangelical activities. Medical missionaries struggled to overcome Koreans' ignorance and prejudice against westerners and western medical services, while they took care of their patients at office, for calls, and in hospital dispensaries. Enlightening the public by criticizing Korean traditional medical treatments including fork remedies, acupuncture, and superstitions, they helped modernization of medical systems in Korea. In the area of education, Rosetta Sherwood taught helpers basic medical science to make them regular medical staff members, and Margaret J. Edmunds established the Nurses' Training School in PoKuNyoKwan for the first time in Korea. The nurses who graduated from the school worked at PoKuNyoKwan and some other medical institutions. Evangelical activities included Bible study in the waiting rooms of PoKuNyoKwan and prayer meeting on Sunday for those who were treated in PoKuNyoKwan. The institution in the end worked as a spot for spreading Christianity in Korea. As the first women's hospital, PoKuNyoKwan attempted to educate female doctors. Eventually, it played a role as a cradle to produce Esther K. Pak, who was the first female doctor in Korea. The hospital also ran the first nurse training center. It was, in a real sense, the foundational institution to raise professional practitioner undertaking medical services in Korea. Therefore, it is reasonable to say that PoKuNyoKwan provided sound basis for the development of modern medical services for women in Korea.

The Establishment of SUMC(Severance Union Medical College) Psychiatry Department and the Formation of Humanistic Tradition / 의사학

Psychiatry is a branch of medicine which deals with the problem of mental health. Although psychiatric concept and treatment is not absent in traditional medicine in Korea, it was not regarded as an independent discipline of medicine. Modern psychiatry was introduced into Korea as modern Western medicine was introduced in 19th century. The American medical missionary Dr. Allen and Dr. Heron gave the first classification of mental diseases of Korean patients in their first year report of Jejoongwon hospital. The statistics are characterized by relatively high rate of hysteria patients among the patients with mental disorders. It was Dr. Mclaren who took the charge of the Psychiatric Department of Severance hospital, the successor of Jejoongwon hospital. As a psychiatrist, Dr. Mclaren had a deep interest in human nature and mind. His thinking on the subjects was based on his Christian faith and philosophy. He claimed that Christian faith plays an important role in curing mental diseases. And several medical students decided to become a psychiatrist under his influence. Among them is Dr. Lee Chung Chul who took the charge of the Department of Psychiatry after Mclaren. After graduation in 1927, Dr. Lee studied in Peking Union Medical College, Australia, and Japan. His main research interests were focused on the biological aspects of mental disorders, and he published several important papers on the subject. But his unexpected early resignation and subsequent expulsion of Dr. Mclaren from Korea by Japanese colonial government hindered further development of psychiatry in Severance Union Medical College until the Liberation from Japanese occupation in 1945. But some of their students specialized in psychiatry during the hard period of early 1940s and they played an important role in the development of modern psychiatry in Korea after the Liberation.

Natureza, colonização e utopia na obra de João Daniel / Nature, colonization, and utopia in the works of João Daniel

Este artigo analisa alguns aspectos do Tesouro descoberto no rio Amazonas, obra composta pelo padre João Daniel (1722-1776), missionário jesuíta no Estado do Maranhão e Grão-Pará entre 1741 e 1757, desterrado para Lisboa dois anos antes do banimento da Companhia de Jesus da América portuguesa. A obra, registro singular da Amazônia de meados do século XVIII, oferece um compêndio das riquezas e potencialidades da região. Sobretudo, apresenta um projeto para a colonização crítico ao modelo então em vigor e que se apresenta como um conjunto integrado que considera as condições ambientais, a técnica e as relações sociais na organização da sociedade local. Ao colocar no centro de seu projeto a questão do trabalho, João Daniel recupera, como metáfora, a idéia - marcante na literatura missionária do século XVII e praticamente abandonada no século XVIII - da Amazônia como paraíso terrestre.

The article analyzes certain aspects of "Tesouro descoberto no rio Amazonas" (Treasure discovered on the Amazon River), written by João Daniel (1722-76) during his time in the State of Maranhão e Grão-Pará as a Jesuit missionary between 1741 and 1757; the priest was banished to Lisbon two years before the Company of Jesus was expelled from Portuguese America. This unique record of the mid-eighteenth-century Amazon is a compendium on the region's wealth and potential. Most importantly, it put forward a colonization project that was critical of the model then in place; the new proposal was an integrated whole which took environmental conditions, technology, and social relations into account in the organization of local society. In centering his project on the issue of labor, João Daniel revives, as a metaphor, the idea of the Amazon as an earthly paradise-a notion that had characterized seventeenth-century missionary literature but was practically abandoned in the eighteenth century.

Albert Schweitzer: el hombre como símbolo / Albert Schweitzer: the man as a symbol

Albert Schweitzer, el gran médico-misionero del siglo XX, poseía una personalidad versátil integrada en múltiples talentos, lo cual produjo la conjunción poco frecuente del pensador con el hombre de acción y del humanista con el científico y el artista. Estudió diferentes disciplinas y en todas fue brillante: Filosofía, Teología, Música y Medicina; además, fue un gran erudito sobre la obra de Bach, de Jesucristo y de la historia de la civilización. Este gran hombre renunció, en su madurez, a la fama y a la gloria que había logrado como intelectual y músico para consagrar como médico su vida a los nativos olvidados de África. Su espíritu, profundamente religioso, le permitió penetrar en lo más recóndito del alma humana; su personalidad expresó en su más amplia dimensión, el deseo eternamente insatisfecho del hombre solitario frente a la inmensidad del universo. Desarrolló su filosofía, basada en el respeto por la vida, a través del noble ejercicio de la medicina. Su grandeza radicó en el hombre como símbolo ya que no fue tanto lo que él hizo en favor de los demás sino lo que los demás pudieron hacer gracias a él. Su singular ejemplo representó una fuerza moral en el mundo, mayor que la de millones de hombres armados para la guerra. En 1953 recibió el Premio Nóbel de la Paz por su obra filantrópica en África durante más de cincuenta años y por su amor profundo hacia todos los seres vivos; se transformó en una leyenda perenne como el médico de Lambaréné.

Albert Schweitzer, the great missionary physician from the XXth century, had a versatile personality that integrated multiple talents, leading to the slightly frequent conjunction of the thinker with the man of action, and the humanist with the scientist and the artist. He studied all these disciplines in a brilliant manner: Philosophy, Theology, Music and Medicine; he was also a great scholar of Bach's work, Jesus Christ and the civilization history. In his maturity, this great man renounced to the fame and glory gained as intellectual and musician, to dedicate his life as a physician for the forgotten African natives. His deeply religious spirit allowed him to penetrate into the most recondite of the human soul; in his personality, he expressed in its entire dimension the eternally unsatisfied desire of the solitary man, against the immensity of the universe. His philosophy, based on the respect for life, was realized throughout the practice of the medical profession. His noble character and personality was based on the man as symbol, since it was not so much what he did helping people but what people could do to others due to him. His singular example represented a moral force in the world, superior to millions of men armed for a war. In 1953, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his philanthropic work in Africa during more that fifty years, and for his deep love to the living beings. He was transformed in a perennial legend as the Lambaréné doctor.

Life and Medical Missionary Activities of Esther K. Pak(1877-1910) / 의사학

Esther K. Pak(1876-1910) is believed as the first medical doctor in Korea. Esther's life can be largely reviewed in three parts: school-hood at EwhaHaktang(currently Ewha Womans University), Education in the United States, and medical missionary work after coming back to Korea from the United States. The foreign Methodist missionaries was able to enter Korea after opening of its ports and establishing its diplomatic relationship with the United States. Esther met modern sciences and Christianity at EwhaHaktang, which was founded by those missionaries. She could dream of being an American-style medical doctor in the future, while she assisted medical missionaries at PoKuNyoKwan in EwhaHaktang. She could get substantial academic help from those missionaries. With the support of Dr. Rosetta Sherwood Hall, who first introduced the world of medial science to Esther in a real sense, Esther went to the United States to study the field in 1894. While learning it, she suffered from academic frustration, economic difficulty, her husband's death and so on, but she eventually got over those adversities and completed the four years of academic courses to become a medical doctor. Her religious faith and will to help Koreans as a doctor encouraged her to finish what she had originally planned. Esther came back to Korea in 1900 and began to work earnestly as a medical missionary delegated from Woman's Foreign Missionary Society. At PoKuNyoKwan in Seoul and Woman's Hospital in Pyongyang, She performed medical work and enlightenment campaign against the superstitious healing conduct. Esther also took part in the circuit missionary performances. She devoted herself for evangelical work at Bible Institute as well. Esther's activity made people understand the effectiveness of education. She helped people to recognize education for woman, occidental medical treatment and Christianity in a positive way. On April 28, 1909, based on these excellent performances for the social development, she was invited, honored and granted a testimonial at the first welcoming ceremony, which was held by the united body of civilians and officials, for students studying abroad. But on April 13, 1910, about one year after the ceremony, she died of illness. She was 34. Although she was born at the turbulent last period of Korea Empire and lived for only 34 years, Esther's medical missionary work was evaluated as the opening of woman's participation in medical science in Korea. Not only in the 'woman's' but also in 'whole' field of medical science, her performance left significant marks in woman's and Christian history in Korea as well.

The Gaze of the Others: How the Western medical missionaries viewed the traditional Korean medicine / 의사학

It is generally known that the Western medical missionaries played an important role in introducing Western medicine into Korea. However, little is known about their role in introducing traditional medicine of Korea to the Western world. The present paper aims at showing various efforts of the Western medical missionaries to understand the Korean traditional medicine and to introduce it to the Western world. Allen payed attention to the clinical effect and commercial value of the Ginseng; Busteed gave anthropological descriptions of the traditional medical practice; Landis translated a part of the most cherished medical textbook of Korean traditional medicine Dong-Eui-Bo-Gam into English; Mills, along with his colleagues in Severance Union Medical College, tried more scientific approaches toward the traditional medicine. All these various efforts proves that the attitudes of the Western medical missionaries cannot be summarized as one simplistic view, that is, the orientalism, a term which is quite en vogue today. Of course, we cannot deny that there may be such elements, but to simplify the whole history as such does not only reflect the fact, but also miss a lot of things to be reflected in history.

A morte no centro da vida: reflexões sobre a cura e a não cura nas reduções jesuítico-guaranis (1609-75) / Death in the center of life: reflections on curing and non-curing in Jesuit-Guarani missions (1609-75)

O tema deste artigo é o impacto das concepções cristãs ocidentais acerca da doença e da morte sobre a sensibilidade indígena guarani e sua tradução, em termos de representações e práticas sociais, nas reduções jesuítico-guaranis circunscritas à Província Jesuítica do Paraguai, no século XVII. A investigação baseia-se em uma releitura das Cartas Anuas da Província Jesuítica do Paraguai, referentes ao período de 1609 a 1675. Busca-se verificar como as demonstrações próprias da sensibilidade guarani foram, ao longo do período analisado, apropriadas pelo discurso jesuítico, como resultado do processo de conversão ao cristianismo, e também avaliar as transformações observáveis na sensibilidade guarani em decorrência da nova realidade reducional.

Reformation of the Medical Educational Institutes and Training of General Doctors during the Early Period of Japanese Rule / 의사학

The Japanese government downgraded a Korean medical college being attached to the Daehan hospital to a medical training center blaming upon a lack of education in Korea. But the actual curriculum and the years required for completing a course of study in the Korean medical college were equivalent to those of the Japanese medical college. Furthermore, the Japanese government discarded the financial support for medical school students. So they should pay their tuitions and other stipends by themselves. The Japanese government forced a private institute to establish an endowed school by the legal act of college. It enabled to classify a medical education system with the judicial support. For the example of Severance Medical School, it reformed faculty, curriculum and facility according to the legal standard of a college act. Therefore, Severance Medical School was able to be upgraded to a medical college. But there was a limitation even for the government schools under the colonial era. It was not possible to train important medical human resource who enabled to supervise the modern medical system in Korea. On one hand, almost every important medical human resource such as a military doctor, and a professor, who should have trained in Korea in the Great Han Period, was trained in Japan. On the other hand, fostering general doctors, who practiced medicine with hands-on experience, was the purpose of medical education in Korea whether the medical school was governmental or private. Since the purpose of Severance Medical College was to foster general doctors, it was able to grow within the colonial medical system. The purpose of medical missionaries, who promoted the spread of gospel with the western medical support, enforced the Japanese colonial logics that the Japanese government could educate and develop Korea with the introduction of western civilization. Although it was later comparing to the government medical school, Severance Medical College enabled to certify the medical license automatically to the graduates from the school. The reason that the Japanese government allowed for Severance Medical College to issue the automatic medical license was to keep the colonial structure of Japanese in Korea.

Medicine and Orientalism in the Late Nineteenth Century Korea / 의사학

The paper investigates medical missionaries that exerted a significant role in establishing Western medicine in the late nineteenth century Chosun, in relation to orientalism, an academically popularized concept introduced by Edward Said. Historical analysis is focused on several important medical missionaries such as Horace N. Allen, William B. Scranton, John W. Heron, C.C. Vinton, and Oliver R. Avison to explain how their activism as medical missionary contributed to the formation of medical orientalism in which Western medicine was 'taught, studied, administered, and judged' in that period. In addition, I explore into how medical orientalism was in service of Japanese imperialism by showing that medical missionaries had to be under imperial surveillance by Japanese colonizers. article explores the medical system of the Koryo Dynasty period and its social characteristics. First, the structure of medical system and roles of medical institutions during the Koryo Dynasty period will be summarized. Then, the characteristics of the medical system will be identified through exploring the principles of its formation in a view of social recognition of medical care and a view of public policy.

The Gurhigae Jejoongwon: its size and activities / 의사학

This article explores the location, size of the site, and medical activities of the Gurhigae Jejoongwon. Relevant documents such as reminiscences, diplomatic notes, newspaper accounts, maps, and photographs were referred for this study. The Gurhigae Jejoongwon located on a hill that, at present, covers the area from Ulchi-ro to MyungDong Cathedral. Its main entrance was towards Ulchi-ro. Real estate including the buildings of the Gurhigae Jejoongwon was returned to the Chosun government in 1905, and the estimated size of its site varied from 1,810 pyung to 5,036 pyung. The site of the Gurhigae Jejoongwon was 2 - 5 times larger than the 862.16-pyung-site of the Jejoongwon in its Jaedong days. With such larger size, the Jejoongwon could take care of more patients. Dr. Avison started medical education again. The Gurhigae Jejoongwon took the central part in medical treatment activities for public in Seoul, as it carried out the prevention activities against Cholera in 1895. The Chosun government highly recognized its medical treatment activities for the common people.

The life of Dr. John William Heron, the second superintendent of Chejungwon / 의사학

The purpose of this paper is to overview the life of John W. Heron, M. D. who was the first appointed medical missionary to Korea by the Presbyterian Church USA. Although he was a competent doctor as well as a devoted missionary, he is not well-known yet, because he died early after 5 years' service in Korea. Dr. Heron was born in Derbyshire, England on June 15, 1856. His father, Rev. E. S. Heron, was a Scotch Minister of Congregational Church. His family emigrated to America in 1870 when he was fourteen years old and settled in Knoxville, Tennessee. In 1881, he was admitted to the University of Tennessee Medical School and graduated with highest honors in 1883. After training in New York University Hospital, he refused the offer of professorship from the University of Tennessee to become a medical missionary to Korea. He arrived in Seoul on June 21, 1885 and began to work in Royal Government Hospital, Chejungwon, the predecessor of Severance Hospital. In 1887, he became the superintendent of the Hospital following Dr. Horace N. Allen. He also worked for the Royal family and sometimes traveled to the rural areas to care for the patients. He started Chejungwon Church which later became Namdaemoon Presbyterian Church. In 1887, Dr. Heron worked as a member of the Bible translation committee and in 1889, he was elected as the chairman of the Public Committee of the Presbyterian Churches. In 1890, he established 'The Korean Religious Tract Society (Chosunsyungkyoseohoi) with Underwood and Ohlinger. The society published and replenished Christian books, periodical magazines and booklets. In the Summer of 1890, Dr. Heron did his best to take care of the sick suffering from an epidemic dysentery and himself got infected because of the terrible overwork. He passed away on July 26th, 1890. On his deathbed, he told his soldier and native friends around him as follow: "Jesus loves you. He gave His life for you. Stand by Him!" The martyrdom of Dr. Heron should be remembered in the Korean history of mission, because he was the first victim among the foreign missionaries who had lived and worked in Seoul for Korean mission. Dr. Heron's mind of love, service and devotion should be remembered by the medical doctors working today in caring for the patients suffering from physical and spiritual illnesses.

Medical education in Je Joon Won / 의사학

Medical education in Je Joong Won was proposed and initiated by Dr. HN Allen. In his proposal of building a new hospital, submitted to the king in 1885, he expressed his wish to teach Western medicine to young Koreans at the hospital. The king welcomed his proposal and the plan was soon realized. Je Joon Won, the first modern hospital in Korea, opened on April 10th, 1885. The following year, on March 29th, Dr. Allen began medical school attached to the hospital. Many applicants were recruited by the government and 16 students were selected through the entrance examination. At first, they were taught English and finally 12 students out of them were selected after three months of teaching. The selected students were taught arithmetic, physics, chemistry, anatomy and physiology. The medical education at this period cannot be evaluated entirely successful since none of the 12 students was presumed to have worked as a practitioner.

One Hundred Years History of Surgery in Korea / 의사학

Introduction of western surgery into Korea is closely related to the introduction of western medicine itself into Korea. In December 4th, 1884 Allen, who came to Korea as a Missionary Doctor of North Presbyterian Church of America, had a chance to treat a patient with severe stab wounds. The patient was a nephew of Queen Myungsung. The paitent, Min Young Ik was recovered completely. These happenings led to the establishment of 'Kwangheywon (renamed to Jejoongwon 2 weeks later)', the first westernized hospital in Korea. With the great financial aids from Severance family, Jejoongwon developed into Severance Hospital and Medical School in 1904, and greatly contributed to education of Surgery for Korean medical students. Meanwhile Korean Government established the Medical School and Hospital to train Korean Doctors in 1899. But the original intentions became to be impaired by occupation of Korea by Japan in 1910. As a colony, many Japanese Surgeons came to Korea as a professors of Kyungsung Medical College, and gave only few chances for Koreans to became a professor. On the contrary, several surgeons became professors in the private, missionary 'Severance Union Medical College'. After liberation from Japanese occupation in 1945, American medical system was introduced into Korea, and many surgeons had a chance to be trained in America. There were great advancements in the field of surgery, especially of neurosurgery, during a tragic Korean War. With the restoration of economy after 1960s, surgery in Korea continued to develop toward an independent and consolidated fields of medicine.

The Introduction of the Western Psychiatry into Korea (1): from the mid seventeenth century to 1911, the time of Japanese forced annexation of Korea / 의사학

The object of this study is to investigate the routes of the introduction of the western psychiatric knowledges and practices in Korea. The historical documents including newspapers and governmental bullettins as well as articles and books on the history of the Korean medicine were examined and the results are as follows: The western knowledge about the brain anatomy and physiology was introduced from China by the enlightened Confucian and Taoistic scholars of Korea in the mid seventeenth century through the Chinese translations of the western science and medicine. Due to the lack of support for the scholars and even persecution by the ruling power to those who had great interests in the western thoughts including sciences, the western medical knowledges could not be actualized in practice. Thus, the active practices of western medicine were started in the late 19th century in Korea through the two routes ; one, via Japanese military physicians and the other one, via the western missionary physicians. The psychiatry was lectured by Japanese psychiatrist in 1910 at the medical school of Tai-Han Ui-won, the Korean governmental clinic and in 1913 at the Severance medical school by the Australian psychiatrist, McLaren. As the independent department with the psychiatric ward, the first Dept. of Psychiatry was established in 1913 at the colonial governmental clinic, Chosun Chondokbu-Uiwon, the former Tai-Han Ui-won. Medicine as well as psychiatry was introduced into Korea under the political atmosphere of onesided admiration for the western science. The attempts to combine the western medicine with the traditional Korean medicine could not be tolerated by both missionary physicians and the colonial regime.

The fate of the old Jejoong Won following the establishment of the new Jejoong Won (Severance Hospital) / 의사학

Dr. Allen, the first Protestant missionary in Korea, had an opportunity of saving the life of the queen's nephew shortly after his arrival in Korea in 1884. In gratitude the King established the Royal Korean Hospital (Jejoong Won), the first hospital in Korea, and appointed Dr. Allen in charge of the medical affairs of the hospital. After Dr. Allen's resignation from the mission, the work was successively carried on by Drs. JW Heron, RA Hardie, CC Vinton and OR Avison, the last of whom arrived in 1893. In 1894 the connection of the Hospital with the Korean Government was severed and the work taken over by the Northern Presbyterian Mission. Since then, it has been a distinctly mission institute. In 1900, while attending the Ecumenical Conference of Foreign Missions in Carnegie Hall, New York, Dr. Avison made the acquaintance of a philanthropist LH Severance, who made a gift of $10,000 for a new hospital. This building, the first modern hospital in Korea, was opened and dedicated in 1904. It was named the Severance Hospital. As the new hospital was built, the old hospital building was to be returned to the Korean Government according to the agreement made in 1894. On retaking the old hospital, the Korean Government paid $30,289.99 won for the renovation of the original building and new buildings established in the site during the period of Avison's entire charge of Jejoong Won. The old hospital building was used as an official residence for a diplomatic adviser Stevens, who was assassinated for his pro-Japan activities, and as a social club for Japanese officials.